FOREWORD.. 6

I LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY.. 7

II HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH.. 10

III PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT.. 17

Introduction. 17

Palaeoproterozoic. 17

Svecofennian orogenic metamorphic rocks. 17

Svecofennian orogenic plutonic rocks. 19

Svecofennian post‑orogenic plutonic rocks. 19

Palaeoproterozoic metamorphism... 20

Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic – rapakivi and related rocks of the Fennoscandian province. 20

Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the Vyborg Subprovince, the 1.62–1.67 Ga age group. 21

Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Åland‑Riga Subprovince, the 1.54–1.59 Ga age group. 22

IV SEDIMENTARY COVER.. 24

Vendian. 24

Kotlin Stage. 24

Cambrian. 26

Lower Cambrian. 27

Lontova Stage. 27

Dominopol’ Stage. 29

Ljuboml’ Stage. 30

Vērgale Stage. 31

Middle Cambrian. 32

Upper Cambrian. 33

Ordovician. 35

Introduction. 35

Oeland Series. 36

Pakerort Stage. 36

Varangu Stage. 37

Hunneberg Stage. 38

Billingen Stage. 39

Volkhov Stage. 40

Kunda Stage. 41

Viru Series. 42

Aseri Stage. 42

Lasnamägi Stage. 43

Uhaku Stage. 44

Kukruse Stage. 45

Haljala Stage. 46

Keila Stage. 47

Oandu Stage. 49

Rakvere Stage. 50

Harju Series. 51

Nabala Stage. 51

Vormsi Stage. 52

Pirgu Stage. 52

Porkuni Stage. 53

Silurian. 55

Llandovery Series. 55

Juuru Stage. 55

Raikküla Stage. 56

Adavere Stage. 58

Wenlock Series. 59

Jaani Stage. 59

Jaagarahu Stage. 60

Rootsiküla Stage. 61

Ludlow Series. 62

Paadla Stage. 62

Kuressaare Stage. 63

Přidoli Series. 64

Kaugatuma Stage. 64

Ohesaare Stage. 64

Devonian. 65

Introduction. 65

Lower Devonian. 66

Til˛ė Stage. 66

Ķemeri Stage. 66

Rēzekne Stage. 67

Middle Devonian. 68

Pärnu Stage. 68

Narva Stage. 69

Aruküla Stage. 71

Burtnieki Stage. 72

Gauja Stage. 73

Amata Stage. 73

Upper Devonian. 74

Pļaviņas Stage. 74

Dubniki Stage. 75

Daugava Stage. 75

V QUATERNARY COVER.. 76

Structure of the Quaternary cover 76

Classification and composition of deposits. 77

Stratigraphical subdivision. 79

Middle Pleistocene. 80

Sangaste Formation. 80

Karuküla Formation. 80

Ugandi Formation. 81

Upper Pleistocene. 81

Prangli (Rõngu) Formation. 81

Järva Formation. 81

Stratigraphy of Late-glacial deposits. 82

Older Dryas Chronozone (Dr2) 83

Allerųd Chronozone (Al) 83

Younger Dryas Chronozone (Dr3) 83

VI HYDROGEOLOGY.. 85

Water-bearing formation. 85

Basic data. 85

Water in the Quaternary cover 86

Water in the bedrock. 86

Groundwater flow.. 90

Main components of the budget and flow systems. 90

Vertical zoning. 92

Water budget of aquifer systems. 95

Fluctuation of the groundwater table under natural conditions. 96

Composition and properties of groundwater under natural conditions. 96

Zone of active water exchange. 96

Zone of passive water exchange. 97

Microelements. 98

Mineral water 99

Temperature. 99

Man-made changes of groundwater quality. 99

Pollution load on groundwater 99

Groundwater protection. 101

Groundwater extraction and safe yield. 101

Groundwater use. 101

Groundwater safe yield. 102

Consequences of the intensive groundwater use. 103

Dewatering of mines and drainage of arable land. 104

VII TECTONICS. 105

Deep structure. 105

Basement features. 105

Cover structure. 107

Neotectonics and recent crustal movements. 110

VIII FORMATION OF THE TERRITORY.. 113

Formation of the Earth’s crust 113

Formation of main features of the continental crust in the region. 113

Formation of the continental crust during the Svecofennian orogeny. 113

Crustal changes during the Meso‑ to Neoproterozoic. 115

Crustal changes during the Phanerozoic. 115

Vendian-Tremadoc clastogenic sedimentation basins. 115

Valdai evolutionary stage. 116

Baltic evolutionary stage. 117

Liivi evolutionary stage. 118

Aisčiai evolutionary stage. 119

Deimena and late Middle Cambrian – early Late Cambrian evolutionary stages. 119

Late Cambrian – Tremadoc evolutionary stage. 120

Ordovician and Silurian carbonate sedimentation basin. 121

Tectonical and facies settings. 121

Transgression stage of development 123

Unification stage of development 124

Differentiation stage of development 125

Stabilization stage of development 127

Infilling stage of development 128

Devonian sedimentation basin. 129

Evolution of life during Vendian – Devonian. 132

Introduction. 132

Ordovician chitinozoans. 133

Silurian chitinozoans. 134

Algae and vascular plants. 135

Stromatoporoids. 136

Tabulate corals. 138

Rugose corals. 139

Inarticulate brachiopods. 140

Ordovician articulate brachiopods. 141

Silurian articulate brachiopods. 142

Bivalves and rostroconchs. 143

Gastropods. 144

Ostracodes. 145

Ordovician trilobites. 146

Silurian trilobites. 147

Echinoderms. 148

Graptolites. 148

Conodonts. 149

Early vertebrates. 151

Devonian fishes. 151

Bedrock topography. 152

History of research. 152

Genesis of the bedrock topography. 153

Ice ages. 155

Deglaciation history. 162

General data about the glacial dynamics. 162

Ice-marginal formations. 162

Ice-dammed lakes. 163

Lithostratigraphical evidence. 163

Biostratigraphical evidence. 164

Chronostratigraphy. 164

Concluding remarks. 165

Evolution of the Baltic Sea. 166

Holocene terrestrial processes. 170

River activity. 170

Lake Peipsi 174

Lake Võrtsjärv. 176

Small lakes. 177

Introduction. 177

Lakes of the Middle and Upper Devonian plateaus. 178

Lakes of the Central Estonian Watershed. 178

Palaeogeographic conclusions. 180

Aeolian activity. 181

Genesis and development of mires. 183

Introduction. 183

Mire initiation. 183

Development 185

Soil formation. 186

Pre-Pleistocene pedogenesis. 186

Holocene pedogenesis. 187

Current soils. 191

IX HUMAN IMPACT.. 193

Prehistoric times. 193

Historic times. 195

X MINERAL RESOURCES. 199

Kukersite oil shale. 199

Introduction. 199

Geological setting of the kukersite oil shale. 199

Estonia oil shale deposit 200

Stratigraphy. 200

Historical background of oil shale exploration and mining. 200

Characterization of the Estonia deposit subdivisions. 201

Geology of the commercial bed A–F1 201

Mineralogy and geochemistry of kukersite oil shale. 202

Calorific value and Fisher Assay data for kukersite oil shale. 203

Mining obstructions and hydrogeological conditions. 203

Oil shale mining and utilization. 205

Tapa oil shale deposit 206

Dictyonema argillite. 206

Phosphorite. 209

Geology. 209

Rakvere deposit 210

Toolse deposit 211

Enrichment and utilization. 212

Problems of development 212

Peat 213

Peat districts. 215

Peat resources. 221

Crystalline rocks. 221

Maardu granite deposit 222

Carbonate rocks. 223

Introduction. 223

Distribution and characteristics. 223

Resources and exploitation. 227

Sand and gravel 228

Introduction. 228

Distribution and quality. 228

Reserves and use. 230

Clay. 230

Lake and sea muds. 233

Lacustrine lime. 235

Mineral occurrences. 237

Iron ore. 237

Polymetallic ores (lead and zinc) 237

Uranium... 238

Rare earth elements (REE) 238

Natural pigments. 239

Diatomite. 239

Gas. 239

Oil 240

Rational use of mineral resources. 240

XI GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS. 242

Book of Primeval Nature. 242

Meteorite craters. 243

Kaali craters. 244

Ilumetsa craters. 245

Tsõõrikmägi Crater 246

Simuna Crater 246

Kärdla Crater 246

Neugrund Crater 247

Erratic boulders. 247

Glacial topography. 248

Valleys. 250

Karst and springs. 252

Escarpments and waterfalls. 253

North-Estonian Klint 253

West-Estonian Klint 256

Waterfalls. 256

Peatlands. 257

Pandivere Water Protection Area. 259

Nature conservation areas and complex monuments. 261