FOREWORD.. 6
I LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY.. 7
II HISTORY
OF GEOLOGICAL RESEARCH.. 10
III PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT.. 17
Introduction. 17
Palaeoproterozoic. 17
Svecofennian orogenic metamorphic rocks. 17
Svecofennian orogenic plutonic rocks. 19
Svecofennian post‑orogenic
plutonic rocks. 19
Palaeoproterozoic metamorphism... 20
Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic –
rapakivi and related rocks of the Fennoscandian province. 20
Palaeoproterozoic rocks of the Vyborg
Subprovince, the 1.62–1.67 Ga age group. 21
Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Åland‑Riga
Subprovince, the 1.54–1.59 Ga age group. 22
IV SEDIMENTARY COVER.. 24
Vendian. 24
Kotlin Stage. 24
Cambrian. 26
Lower Cambrian. 27
Lontova Stage. 27
Dominopol’ Stage. 29
Ljuboml’ Stage. 30
Vērgale Stage. 31
Middle Cambrian. 32
Upper Cambrian. 33
Ordovician. 35
Introduction. 35
Oeland
Series. 36
Pakerort
Stage. 36
Varangu
Stage. 37
Hunneberg
Stage. 38
Billingen
Stage. 39
Volkhov
Stage. 40
Kunda
Stage. 41
Viru
Series. 42
Aseri
Stage. 42
Lasnamägi
Stage. 43
Uhaku Stage. 44
Kukruse
Stage. 45
Haljala
Stage. 46
Keila
Stage. 47
Oandu
Stage. 49
Rakvere
Stage. 50
Harju
Series. 51
Nabala
Stage. 51
Vormsi
Stage. 52
Pirgu
Stage. 52
Porkuni
Stage. 53
Silurian. 55
Llandovery Series. 55
Juuru Stage. 55
Raikküla Stage. 56
Adavere Stage. 58
Wenlock Series. 59
Jaani Stage. 59
Jaagarahu Stage. 60
Rootsiküla Stage. 61
Ludlow Series. 62
Paadla Stage. 62
Kuressaare Stage. 63
Přidoli Series. 64
Kaugatuma Stage. 64
Ohesaare Stage. 64
Devonian. 65
Introduction. 65
Lower Devonian. 66
Til˛ė Stage. 66
Ķemeri Stage. 66
Rēzekne Stage. 67
Middle Devonian. 68
Pärnu Stage. 68
Narva Stage. 69
Aruküla Stage. 71
Burtnieki Stage. 72
Gauja Stage. 73
Amata Stage. 73
Upper Devonian. 74
Pļaviņas Stage. 74
Dubniki Stage. 75
Daugava Stage. 75
V QUATERNARY COVER.. 76
Structure of the Quaternary cover 76
Classification and composition of
deposits. 77
Stratigraphical subdivision. 79
Middle Pleistocene. 80
Sangaste Formation. 80
Karuküla Formation. 80
Ugandi Formation. 81
Upper Pleistocene. 81
Prangli (Rõngu) Formation. 81
Järva Formation. 81
Stratigraphy of Late-glacial deposits. 82
Older Dryas Chronozone (Dr2) 83
Allerųd Chronozone (Al) 83
Younger Dryas Chronozone (Dr3) 83
VI HYDROGEOLOGY.. 85
Water-bearing formation. 85
Basic data. 85
Water in the Quaternary cover 86
Water in the bedrock. 86
Groundwater flow.. 90
Main components of the budget and flow
systems. 90
Vertical zoning. 92
Water budget of aquifer systems. 95
Fluctuation of the groundwater table
under natural conditions. 96
Composition and properties of
groundwater under natural conditions. 96
Zone of active water exchange. 96
Zone of passive water exchange. 97
Microelements. 98
Mineral water 99
Temperature. 99
Man-made changes of groundwater quality. 99
Pollution load on groundwater 99
Groundwater protection. 101
Groundwater extraction and safe yield. 101
Groundwater use. 101
Groundwater safe yield. 102
Consequences of the intensive
groundwater use. 103
Dewatering of mines and drainage of
arable land. 104
VII TECTONICS. 105
Deep structure. 105
Basement features. 105
Cover structure. 107
Neotectonics and recent crustal
movements. 110
VIII FORMATION OF THE TERRITORY.. 113
Formation of the Earth’s crust 113
Formation of main features of the
continental crust in the region. 113
Formation of the continental crust
during the Svecofennian orogeny. 113
Crustal changes during the Meso‑
to Neoproterozoic. 115
Crustal changes during the Phanerozoic. 115
Vendian-Tremadoc clastogenic
sedimentation basins. 115
Valdai evolutionary stage. 116
Baltic evolutionary stage. 117
Liivi evolutionary stage. 118
Aisčiai evolutionary stage. 119
Deimena and late Middle Cambrian – early
Late Cambrian evolutionary stages. 119
Late Cambrian – Tremadoc evolutionary
stage. 120
Ordovician and Silurian carbonate
sedimentation basin. 121
Tectonical and facies settings. 121
Transgression stage of development 123
Unification stage of development 124
Differentiation stage of development 125
Stabilization stage of development 127
Infilling stage of development 128
Devonian sedimentation basin. 129
Evolution of life during Vendian –
Devonian. 132
Introduction. 132
Ordovician chitinozoans. 133
Silurian chitinozoans. 134
Algae and vascular plants. 135
Stromatoporoids. 136
Tabulate corals. 138
Rugose corals. 139
Inarticulate brachiopods. 140
Ordovician articulate brachiopods. 141
Silurian articulate brachiopods. 142
Bivalves and rostroconchs. 143
Gastropods. 144
Ostracodes. 145
Ordovician trilobites. 146
Silurian trilobites. 147
Echinoderms. 148
Graptolites. 148
Conodonts. 149
Early vertebrates. 151
Devonian fishes. 151
Bedrock topography. 152
History of research. 152
Genesis of the bedrock topography. 153
Ice ages. 155
Deglaciation history. 162
General data about the glacial dynamics. 162
Ice-marginal formations. 162
Ice-dammed lakes. 163
Lithostratigraphical evidence. 163
Biostratigraphical evidence. 164
Chronostratigraphy. 164
Concluding remarks. 165
Evolution of the Baltic Sea. 166
Holocene
terrestrial processes. 170
River activity. 170
Lake Peipsi 174
Lake Võrtsjärv. 176
Small lakes. 177
Introduction. 177
Lakes of the Middle and Upper Devonian
plateaus. 178
Lakes of the Central Estonian Watershed. 178
Palaeogeographic conclusions. 180
Aeolian activity. 181
Genesis and development of mires. 183
Introduction. 183
Mire initiation. 183
Development 185
Soil formation. 186
Pre-Pleistocene pedogenesis. 186
Holocene pedogenesis. 187
Current soils. 191
IX HUMAN IMPACT.. 193
Prehistoric times. 193
Historic times. 195
X MINERAL RESOURCES. 199
Kukersite oil shale. 199
Introduction. 199
Geological setting of the kukersite oil
shale. 199
Estonia oil shale deposit 200
Stratigraphy. 200
Historical background of oil shale
exploration and mining. 200
Characterization of the Estonia deposit
subdivisions. 201
Geology of the commercial bed A–F1 201
Mineralogy and geochemistry of kukersite
oil shale. 202
Calorific value and Fisher Assay data
for kukersite oil shale. 203
Mining obstructions and hydrogeological
conditions. 203
Oil shale mining and utilization. 205
Tapa oil shale deposit 206
Dictyonema argillite. 206
Phosphorite. 209
Geology. 209
Rakvere deposit 210
Toolse deposit 211
Enrichment and utilization. 212
Problems of development 212
Peat 213
Peat districts. 215
Peat resources. 221
Crystalline rocks. 221
Maardu granite deposit 222
Carbonate rocks. 223
Introduction. 223
Distribution and characteristics. 223
Resources and exploitation. 227
Sand and gravel 228
Introduction. 228
Distribution and quality. 228
Reserves and use. 230
Clay. 230
Lake and sea muds. 233
Lacustrine lime. 235
Mineral occurrences. 237
Iron ore. 237
Polymetallic ores (lead and zinc) 237
Uranium... 238
Rare earth elements (REE) 238
Natural pigments. 239
Diatomite. 239
Gas. 239
Oil 240
Rational use of mineral resources. 240
XI
GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS. 242
Book of Primeval Nature. 242
Meteorite craters. 243
Kaali craters. 244
Ilumetsa craters. 245
Tsõõrikmägi Crater 246
Simuna Crater 246
Kärdla Crater 246
Neugrund Crater 247
Erratic boulders. 247
Glacial topography. 248
Valleys. 250
Karst and springs. 252
Escarpments and waterfalls. 253
North-Estonian Klint 253
West-Estonian Klint 256
Waterfalls. 256
Peatlands. 257
Pandivere Water Protection Area. 259
Nature conservation areas and complex
monuments. 261